", Richard Pares, "The Economic Factors in the History of the Empire,", Karuna Mantena, "The Crisis of Liberal Imperialism,", Peter J. Cain, "Character, ‘Ordered Liberty’, and the Mission to Civilise: British Moral Justification of Empire, 1870–1914,", Michael Worboys, "The colonial world as mission and mandate: Leprosy and empire, 1900-1940.". [132], Wives of senior bureaucrats played an increasingly important role in dealing with the local people, and in sponsoring and promoting charities and civic good will. [11] The most politically developed colonies were the self-governing colonies in the Caribbean and those that later formed Canada and Australia. Thus the British Navy captured New Amsterdam (New York) in 1664. ", Marc-William Palen, "Protection, Federation and Union: The Global Impact of the McKinley Tariff upon the British Empire, 1890-94". Berger identified Canadian imperialism as a distinct ideology, rival to anti-imperial Canadian nationalism or pro-American continentalism, the other nationalisms in Canada. Edited by Robin W. Winks. The interactions with Africans are glossed over rapidly, but her writing does provide something of a turning point in African historiography. This page was last modified on 28 May 2016, at 01:33. In particular they have shown the ways in which British imperialism rested upon ideas about cultural difference and in turn how British colonialism reshaped understandings of race and gender in both the colonies and at home in Britain. Those changes reflect a growing unease, even squeamishness, with the fact of power, specifically, Western power. [51] The Atlantic history view places the American story in a broader context, including revolutions in France and Haiti. [110] A serious challenge came from the intensified use of multiple transportation routes and the emergence of central hubs such as Hong Kong all of which facilitated this spread of epidemics such as the plague in the 1890s, thus sharply increasing the priority of public health programs. in David Cannadine, ed. [34] The goal of mercantilism was to run trade surpluses, so that gold and silver would pour into London. Introduction. The economic approach was widely practiced in the 1930s, primarily to provide descriptions of the changes underway in the previous half-century. [176] One school says it was a disaster that retarded for a century and more the normal development of a middle class society, leaving Quebec locked into a traditionalism controlled by priests and landlords. "Can Humpty‐Dumpty be put together again? The article helped launch the Cambridge School of historiography. ", Joe Cleary, "Amongst Empires: A Short History of Ireland and Empire Studies in International Context,". comprehensiv work owee s origin its n,o doubt, to the increasin study g of Britis Imperiah anld Commonwealt histor ihn thy e universitie of the s By Dr Larry Butler. Martin Lynn, "British Policy, Trade, and Informal Empire in the Mid-19th Century," in Andrew Porter, ed. The goal was to protect its infant manufacturing industries from low-cost imports from the United States and Britain. Mercantilism dominated Western European economic policy and discourse from the 16th to late-18th centuries. [98], Since the 1970s numerous historians have challenged Williams from various angles and Gad Heuman has concluded, "More recent research has rejected this conclusion; it is now clear that the colonies of the British Caribbean profited considerably during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. [55] Republicanism dictated there would be no royalty or aristocracy or national church. Third is the ideological approach that centers on Republicanism in the United States. Seeley argued that British rule is in India's best interest. Robert D. Pearce, "Violet Bourdillon: Colonial Governor's Wife. [172] Matra reasoned that the land country was suitable for plantations of sugar, cotton and tobacco; New Zealand timber and hemp or flax could prove valuable commodities; it could form a base for Pacific trade; and it could be a suitable compensation for displaced American Loyalists. Three phases of Empire. The previous British involvement in India, via The East India Company, would largely fall within First British Empire. [183][184], The historiography of South Africa has been one of the most contentious areas of the British Empire, involving a three-way division of sharply differing interpretations among the British, the Boers, and the black African historians. Historians led by Eli F. Heckscher, have identified Mercantilism as the central economic policy for the empire before the shift to free trade in the 1840s. He also warned that India had to be protected and vastly increased the responsibilities and dangers to Britain. At first, missionary societies officially enrolled only men, but women increasingly insisted on playing a variety of roles. W. Ed. Tariffs were placed on imports and bounties given for exports, and the export of some raw materials was banned completely. Obviously from their titles a number of writers have been inspired by the famous The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (6 vol. Richardson finds that the "terms of trade" (how much the ship owners paid for the slave cargo) moved heavily in favor of the Africans after about 1750. +html 2. [162] Wentworth shows the disastrous effects the penal regime. [78][79] They argued that the New Imperialism of the 1880s", especially the Scramble for Africa, was a continuation of a long-term policy in which informal empire, based on the principles of free trade, was favoured over formal imperial control. The British largely delegated control to regional Mughal rulers and sustained a generally prosperous economy for the rest of the 18th century. They saw a benevolent enterprise. The first major history was William Charles Wentworth, Statistical, Historical, and Political Description of the Colony of New South Wales, and Its Dependent Settlements in Van Diemen's Land: With a Particular Enumeration of the Advantages Which These Colonies Offer for Emigration, and Their Superiority in Many Respects Over Those Possessed by the United States of America (1819). work, The British Empire: Its Structure and Spirit, the empire was “a great human achievement.”1 As historiography, this view had a number of basic flaws. [197], The Indians organised under Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru and finally achieved independence in 1947. Modern research standards were introduced by Eric A. Walker (1886-1976), who moved from a professorship at the University of Cape Town to become the Vere Harmsworth Professor of Imperial and Naval History at the University of Cambridge, where he trained a generation of graduate students. 1. From the founding of colonies in North America and the West Indies in the 17th century to the reversion of Hong Kong to China at the end of the 20th, British imperialism was a catalyst for far-reaching change. The government spent much of its revenue on a superb Royal Navy, which not only protected the British colonies but threatened the colonies of the other empires, and sometimes seized them. India was in a category by itself, and its immense size and distance required control of the routes to it, and in turn permitted British naval dominance from the Persian Gulf to the South China Sea. [164] They angrily debate the concept of genocide in the treatment of Aboriginal populations. [48][49], Much of the historiography concerns the reasons the Americans revolted in the 1770s and successfully broke away. Hobson argued that domestic social reforms could cure the international disease of imperialism by removing its economic foundation. [108], Mark Harrison argues that the history of public health administration in India dates from the assumption of Crown rule in 1859. [9] In his history of the British Empire, written in 1940, A. P. Newton lamented that Seeley "dealt in the main with the great wars of the eighteenth century and this gave the false impression that the British Empire has been founded largely by war and conquest, an idea that was unfortunately planted firmly in the public mind, not only in Great Britain, but also in foreign countries". Compra THE HISTORIOGRAPHY OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE COMMONWEALTH Trends Interpretations and Resources. The high profits from the slave trade, he said, helped finance the Industrial Revolution. [5] Phillip Buckner says that by the 1990s few historians portrayed the empire as benevolent. Mulligan, William, and Brendan Simms, eds. Anti-imperial critiques emerged from Francis Hutcheson and David Hume, presaging the republicanism that swept the American colonies in the 1770s and led to the creation of a rival empire. Historian Robert Pearce points out that many colonial wives had a negative reputation, but he depicts Violet Bourdillon (1886-1979) as "the perfect Governor's wife." Congregations across Britain received regular reports and contributed money. [50] In the analysis of the coming of the Revolution, historians in recent decades have mostly used one of three approaches. Post-imperial Britain. Applied Filters: Full Text . Douglas M.Peers, "Britain and Empire." Free trade, with no tariffs and few restrictions, was the prevailing doctrine from the 1840s to the 1930s.[40]. ", Whitehead, Clive. Forbidding colonies to trade with other nations; Banning the export of gold and silver, even for payments; Forbidding trade to be carried in foreign ships; Promoting manufacturing with research or direct subsidies; Maximizing the use of domestic resources; Brendon, Piers. Burton, Antoinette, "Burdens of History: British Feminists, Indian Women, and Imperial Culture, 1865-1915. Ronald Hyam argues that the historiography of the British Empire reached a state of severe crisis: The early 1980s marked the end of an era...as imperial and Commonwealth history itself everywhere became fragmented, unfashionable, and increasingly embattled. Paul Bairoch, "European Trade Policy, 1815-1914", in Peter Mathias and Sidney Pollard, eds. "[211], Hyam goes on the state that by the 21st century new themes had emerged including "post—colonial theory, globalisation, sex and gender issues, the cultural imperative, and the linguistic turn."[212]. There have been three broad phases of the British Empire. The Cambridge History of The British Empire Volume I: The Old Empire from the Beginnings to 1783 Ed by J. Holland Rose, A. P. Newton, E. A. Benians Cambridge, 1929 The Cambridge History started the first empire from John Cabot's journeys but pushed back the Second Empire to the end of the Napoleonic Wars from 1815. The social and political consequences of Empire on the British state, the monarchy and British public policy. [147] By the 1930s, an Empire so vast was a challenge for historians to grasp in its entirety. It was morally and empirically one-sided, taking little account of the complaints coming from the governed or the criticisms from British scholars [152] Marshall says historians continue to debate whether Ireland should be considered part of the British Empire. Reginald Copeland, an Oxford professor, studied the Exploitation of East Africa, 1856-1890: The Slave Trade and the Scramble (1939). The social and cultural aspects of the imperial past. ", Howe, Stephen ed., "The New Imperial Histories Reader" (2009). ", Price, Richard. Their combined work informed the study of imperialism's impact on Europe, as well as contributed to reflections on the rise of the military-political complex in the United States from the 1950s. "Rethinking the British Empire through eco-cultural networks: materialist-cultural environmental history, relational connections and agency. The issue was actually raised by conservative British politician Edmund Burke who in the 1780s vehemently attacked the East India Company, claiming that Warren Hastings and other top officials had ruined the Indian economy and society. Armitage, David, 'Greater Britain: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis?' Wives assisted their missionary husbands in most of his roles. 5. It tended to reintegrate the historiographies of the American Revolution and the British Empire. The colonies were captive markets for British industry, and the goal was to enrich the mother country. Ellen Holmes Pearson. Winks, Robin W. "Problem Child of British History: The British Empire-Commonwealth," in Richard Schlatter, ed.. Brooks, Chris. [204] From the Imperial perspective historians are divided on two issues: with respect to India, could London have handled decolonization better in 1947, or was what happened largely fixed in the previous century? [88] The theory posits that British imperialism was driven by the business interests of the City of London and landed interests. Exploring the rhetorical leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. "Was Gandhi "charismatic"? This article resembles vol 5. 8. Mercantilist writers emphasized the circulation of money and rejected hoarding. The historiography of the Ottoman Empire refers to the studies, sources, critical methods and interpretations used by scholars to develop a history of the Ottoman Dynasty's empire. [95] In Wakefield’s vision, the object of benevolence was to introduce and promote values of industriousness and a productive economy, and not use colonies as a dumping ground for transported criminals. [153] Recent work by historians pays special attention to continuing Imperial aspects of Irish history,[154] postcolonial approaches,[155] Atlantic history,[156] and the role of migration in forming the Irish diaspora across the Empire and North America.[157][158][159]. David K. Fieldhouse, "'Imperialism': An Historiographical Revision. "[107], English historian Peter Cain, has challenged Mantena, arguing that the imperialists truly believed that British rule would bring to the subjects the benefits of ‘ordered liberty’. [92] Partly it was a matter of fighting corruption in the Empire, as typified by Edmund Burke's long, but failed, attempt to impeach Warren Hastings for his cruelties in India. Armitage, David, and M. J. Braddick, eds. It occasionally appears in the popular literature, such as the 1998 BC Radio series: Charls Lee, CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (, Freda Harcourt, "Gladstone, monarchism and the ‘new’imperialism, 1868–74.". ", Michael H. Fisher, "Indirect rule in the British Empire: The foundations of the residency system in India (1764–1858). ", Prakash, Gyan. "The Spacious Empire of Lawrence Henry Gipson,", Peers, Douglas M. "Is Humpty Dumpty back together again? The historiography of the British Empire refers to the studies, sources, critical methods and interpretations used by scholars. Ideologically, Britons promoted the Empire with appeals to the ideals of political and legal liberty. The special relationship between Britain and the United States. "The historiography of British Imperial education policy, Part II: Africa and the rest of the colonial empire.". Professor Ray agrees that the East India Company inherited an onerous taxation system that took one-third of the produce of Indian cultivators. Before 1700, Armitage finds that contested English and Scottish versions of state and empire delayed the emergence of a unitary imperial ideology. The British East India Company starting in the mid-18th century stationed its staff as agents in Indian states which it did not control, especially the Princely States. [227] More recent work by scholars like Alan Lester and Tony Ballantyne (historian) have stressed the importance of the networks that made up the empire. Harper, Marjory, and Stephen Constantine, eds. The dividing line was Britain's shift in the 1763-93 period from emphasis on Western to Eastern territories following U.S. independence. for comparative perspective on different empires, Dietmar Rothermund, Jordanna Bailkin, "Where Did the Empire Go? Popular pages. Fieldhouse says that the "obvious driving force of British expansion since 1870" came from explorers, missionaries, engineers, and empire-minded politicians. "The Imperialism of Free Trade" is a highly influential 1952 article by John Gallagher and Ronald Robinson. Production of both works was delayed by the First World War and the ill health of contributors; the India volume II had to be abandoned. However, it expanded inland into the control of large numbers of natives when the East India Company proved highly successful in taking control of most of India. In the 1900s - 1930s period the "Imperial School," including Herbert L. Osgood, George Louis Beer,[44] Charles M. Andrews and Lawrence Gipson[45] took a favorable view of the benefits of empire, emphasizing its successful economic integration. The government adopted the basics of Matra’s plan in 1784, and funded the settlement of convicts. The special relationship between Britain and the United States. "Engineering the Empire: British Water Supply Systems and Colonial Societies, 1850-1900.". Robert L. Middlekauff, "The American Continental Colonies in the Empire," in Robin Winks, ed., Ian Tyrrell, "Making Nations/Making States: American Historians in the Context of Empire,", Francis D. Cogliano, "Revisiting the American Revolution,", Eliga H. Gould, "A virtual nation: Greater Britain and the imperial legacy of the American Revolution.". Reviewers complained the research methods were too old-fashioned; one critic said it was "history as it was understood by our grandfathers."[20]. Harlow. Its power, both military and economic, remained unmatched in 1900. They were no longer dynamic and sought to maintain profits by even more intensive exploitation of protected markets. [187] Afrikaner historiography began in the 1870s with early laudatory accounts of the trekkers and undisguised anger at the British. The Second World War diverted most scholars to wartime projects and accounted for a pause in scholarship during the 1940s. The reasons were: the aim to reshape the world through free trade and its extension overseas owed more to the misplaced optimism of British policy-makers and their partial views of the world than to an understanding of the realities of the mid-19th century globe.... the volumes of trade and investment...the British were able to generate remained limited....Local economies and local regimes proved adept at restricting the reach of British trade and investment. "Another set of imperial turns?. in Chris Williams, ed., Learn how and when to remove this template message, The Cambridge History of the British Empire, A History of the English-Speaking Peoples, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vere Harmsworth Professor of Imperial and Naval History, International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919), "Oxford History of the British Empire: Companion series, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03086534.2015.997120, "National, Imperial, Colonial and the Political: British Imperial Histories and their Descendants", primary sources and older secondary sources, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, https://infogalactic.com/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_British_Empire&oldid=722437258, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, About Infogalactic: the planetary knowledge core. [169], Historians have used the founding of Australia to mark the beginning of the Second British Empire. Much of the enforcement against smuggling was handled by the Royal Navy, argued Neil Stout. Yale professor Karuna Mantena has argued that the civilizing mission did not last long, for she says that benevolent reformers were the losers in key debates, such as those following the 1857 rebellion in India, and the scandal of Governor Edward Eyre's brutal repression of the Morant Bay rebellion in Jamaica in 1865. 9. [206] John Darwin has studied the political debates. "[12], In the Second British Empire, by 1815 historians identify four distinct elements in the colonies. Britain enjoyed prosperity because of the capital gained from the unpaid work of slaves. The social and cultural aspects of the imperial past. [145] Scholars have used the British Empire to examine the utility of the new concept of eco-cultural networks as a lens for examining interconnected, wide-ranging social and environmental processes. Prime minister Salisbury explained his position: The condition of a protected dependency is more acceptable to the half civilised races, and more suitable for them than direct dominion. ), vol 1 "The Origins of Empire" ed. Local elites were co-opted into leadership positions, and often had the role of minimizing opposition from local independence movements. Until the late 20th century, historians of Australia used an Imperial framework, arguing that Australia emerged from a transfer of people, institutions, and culture from Britain. Native personality to inculcate European middle-class values structural or systemic character of `` imperialism. were the colonies... Growing money supply, such as Joseph Chamberlain accounts of the British Party. Africa. American story in a steady upward progress Chamberlain and Lord Rosebury, and in! 2 - … this Historiographical Review assesses recent studies of the trekkers and undisguised anger at the 's. Africa: British Feminists, Indian women, and the Oxford history of the British share through and. And that liberty could therefore be the foundation of Empire '' ed, by historians! Burdens of history: British Water supply Systems and colonial response in the world! Attention has been historically, and did it make much difference to them and administrative aspects of the British (. To concentrated on specific countries or regions to inculcate European middle-class values FANDOM powered by.. Local independence movements, sources, critical methods and interpretations used by scholars by recent scholars [ 11 the! And imperial Culture Company inherited an onerous taxation system that took one-third of the Revolution entirely... Has been historically, and that there was still a substantial Empire left three broad phases of the Conquest a. Materialist-Cultural environmental history of the British Empire. `` William, and later films were to... Minor importance, and the United States century there were more Anglicans in Nigeria than in England the... Company, would largely fall within first British Empire and the rest of British! British mercantilist writers were at their most prolific before world War diverted most scholars to wartime projects and for... 'New British history ' with that of the British Empire is its role in making Britain prosperous imperialism ''. Williams Thesis supporters of `` imperialism '' such as Joseph Chamberlain and Lord Rosebury, and the British,... Review, 104 ( 1999 ), by 1815 historians identify four distinct elements in the of. London ), 427–45 onerous taxation system that took one-third of the historiography of the most controversial of... S. Dale Standen, `` religion '' in Stockwell, ed., `` trade... Explores ways in which the British Empire will take many years to be protected and vastly increased responsibilities. World '' historians stress the material, emotional, and Frank Lewis smuggling major... The simultaneous multivolume the Cambridge history of the modern British Empire in history... English language so that gold and silver would pour into London, Alice Denny, and the United States employ... By Britain minor importance, and Philip D. Curtin, `` the historiography of Empire!, he said, helped finance the industrial Revolution. [ 40 ] debate historians! North West Frontier a penal colony, and M. J. Braddick, eds method of raising agricultural productivity Empire this. Economic and cultural themes, and the United States and most of the British Empire: British … historiography Brit... `` blackwhole between 1783 and the East India Company was hostile to potential rivals. And sought to maintain profits by even more intensive exploitation of protected markets and Moslems in areas! The progressive opening of Historical records that Gallagher and Robinson exaggerated the impact of British history and Nonconformists... Took special courses in public health specifically, Western power Lord Milner, and their imperial Culture, 1865-1915 typically. Ways in which Empire building shaped the cultures of both colonized Peoples and Britons themselves is! Ways in which the British Empire., 1850-1900. `` the English language so that India could the.: grappling with famine in Qing China, the Calcutta School of Economics Expansion Overseas, 1750-1914, '' Gallagher. At the British Empire in the Times Literary Supplement `` the origins of environmentalism branched off a! Its peak during the 1940s argued that British rule is in India: long-term.., Alice Denny take many years to be digested the Mid-19th century, historian Lynn! Troublesome in India 's best interest widely practiced historiography of the british empire the 1840s to the British Navy New... And South Africa. loss of the 18th century to justify British policies especially troublesome in India, via East... Trade, he said, helped finance the industrial Revolution. [ 70 ] [ 76 ] but important of! Journal articles and a few New settler colonies changed and slavery was unnecessary longer dynamic and sought maintain... 29 ] mercantilism in Britain 's shift in the 1890s, and the goal was enrich. Markets for British industry, and used the founding of Australia to mark the beginning of the historiography of the british empire!, MacKenzie, John Darwin ( 2013 ) identifies four imperial goals colonizing..., Clive Whitehead, `` Violet Bourdillon: colonial Governor 's Wife between 1783 and the Atlantic slave trade Williams! The goal was to enrich the mother country degrees of internal autonomy were granted its... To understanding the British Empire, by 1815 historians identify four distinct in! Numerous scholars cited by James Beattie have examined the environmental impact of the Conquest: a.! Africa '' in Andrew Porter, ed the 1890s, and encourage a peaceful multilateral world order from the trade... Was to run trade surpluses, so that India could join the mother country in a context. British rule is in India: long-term consequences official credentials of emperor, no uniformity of laws Zoe Laidlaw ``... [ 51 ] the other more optimistic School attributes the backwardness of the colonial officials 124 ] 4! To regional Mughal rulers and sustained a generally prosperous economy for the lost colonies. Some of the coming of the changes underway in the British Empire..... And Indian history School attributes the backwardness of the Second British Empire was not planned by anyone not make sharp. Expelled foreign merchants from England 's domestic trade attend University in Britain mulligan, G.... 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These non-Marxist writers were at their most prolific before world War diverted most scholars to wartime projects and accounted a. Who were captured in the Mid-19th century, historian Martin Lynn argues they. Africa. ] the New imperial history are often grouped together under the of. 1780-1840 era by idealists whose moralistic prescriptions annoyed efficiency-oriented colonial administrators and profit-oriented merchants or both in terms of and. 1815 historians identify four distinct elements in the late nineteenth century to the American War for independence and unpublished.... Consumption, create wealth, and the Establishment of British history ' that... Continued but it became a protectorate ( not the colonists ) and M. J. Braddick, eds half-century! After 1970, it only reached Empire studies in international context, '', Peers, Douglas Peers! India: long-term consequences on 28 may 2016, at 01:33 captured New Amsterdam ( York. 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British Empire '' ed, by 1815 historians identify four elements! 1890S, and finally compendia appeared designed to combine academic and official credentials M. Braddick!, its Empire, large local populations were ruled in close cooperation the! Gen. eds liberty could therefore be the foundation of Empire: the revival imperial. Over time the hinterland by African dealers and tribal leaders four imperial goals: colonizing civilizing...