[73], Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October. The search for oil, begun in 1908 and abandoned a few years later, was revived in 1937 by Shell and British Petroleum. Lost land and independence died of diseases that euro bring PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. [51], Guidelines for running the Nigerian colony were established in 1898 by the Niger Committee, chaired by the Earl of Selborne, in 1898. The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary. Beecroft agreed on condition that the slave trade be abolished, and British merchants have a monopoly in commodities. Samori Ture 7. (Specifically it would enable direct subsidy of the less profitable Northern jurisdiction.) [19] This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. Internal self-government was granted to the Western and Eastern regions in 1957. Economic hardship caused by the war certainly underlay and even provoked resistance against the colonial authorities. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. [8], Through a progressive sequence of regimes, the British imposed Crown Colony government on much of the area of West Africa which came to be known as Nigeria, a form of rule which was both autocratic and bureaucratic. Anticolonialism in the twentieth and twenty-first century refers to two interconnected concepts: a historical event and a critical analytic. Alienated by the anonymity of the urban environment and drawn together by ties to their ethnic homelandsas well as by the need for mutual aidthe new city dwellers formed local clubs that later expanded into federations covering whole regions. The Deputy Governor served as political administrator for company territory and appointed three officials in Nigeria to carry out the work of administration. Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. The . By a British Act of Parliament, Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960. Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. Anietie A. Inyang & Manasseh Edidem Bassey, "Imperial Treaties and the Origins of British Colonial Rule in Southern Nigeria, 18601890". The slave trade was heaviest in the period 17001850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. Libyan Resistance. These were the Agent-General, the Senior Judicial Officer, and the Commandant of the Constabulary. Although colonial rule appeared secure in the first two decades of the 20th century, the British struggled to keep control of their Nigerian colony and continued to do so until Nigeria became independent in 1960. Main aim. The Portuguese sold slaves as a way to "obtain spices and weapons in other areas" (Alme). Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. 22. The growth of Islam in pre-colonial Igbomina / Adesina Yusuf Raji. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive. The greatest advantage of Nigeria were its huge natural . His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. In 1950 Aminu Kano, who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the Northern Elements Progressive Union (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. Ken Swindell, "The Commercial Development of the North: Company and Government Relations, 19001906". Nigeria: ColonizationKatie Graham. The Northern People's Congress (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. Accordingly, as the volume of trade increased, merchants requested that the Government of the United Kingdom appoint a consul to cover the region. Formal diplomatic relations were established with the opening of the American Embassy in Lagos and of the Nigerian Embassy in Washington, both on 1 October 1960, the same day which Nigeria acquired its independence from British rule. Direct taxation on men was introduced in 1928 without major incidents. Exploration was intensified in 1946, but the first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, at Olobiri in the Niger Delta. In 1916, Sir Edward Carson led the majority of the Conservative and Unionist Party to vote against Party Leader Bonar Law on the issue, forcing it to withdraw from the Asquith coalition and for the government to begin to break apart. Among the problems needing attention before the British would grant full independence was the minorities fear of discrimination by a future government based on majority ethnic groups. If adopted, his proposals can hardly be a permanent solution and I gather that Sir F. Lugard only regards them as temporaryat any rate in part. In 1944 Macaulay and Nnamdi Azikiwe, an Igbo who had been educated in the United States, united more than 40 different groups to establish the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC). In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. The company interfered in the territory along the Niger and the Benue, sometimes becoming embroiled in serious conflicts when its British-led native constabulary intercepted slave raids or attempted to protect trade routes. Other commercial crops, such as cocoa and rubber, were encouraged, and tin was mined on the Jos Plateau. In fact, while the southern delegates pressed for Ethnic cleavages intensified in the 1950s. In case of resistance by one of its friends the other would join hands to mount formidable resistance against colonial rule e.g. The war years brought a polarization between the older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in more immediate terms. Goods were made available on credit to African middlemen, who were expected to trade them at a pre-arranged price and deliver the proceeds to the company. Borno capitulated without a fight, but in 1903 Lugard's RWAFF mounted assaults on Kano and Sokoto. By 1938 the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the British Commonwealth of Nations so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. Under Goldie's direction, the Royal Niger Company was instrumental in depriving France and Germany of access to the region. Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of Harold Laski at the London School of Economics, whose political orientation was considered left-wing. Early British Imperialism. Hon. As a latecomer in the struggle for colonies, Germany had to settle for four territories, called "protectorates," in . At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. The NCNC backed creation of a midwest state and proposed federal control of education and health services. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(04), 563. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00023909, This page was last edited on 30 January 2023, at 05:21. The government was responsible to a Parliament composed of the popularly elected 312-member House of Representatives and the 44-member Senate, chosen by the regional legislatures. In 1920, portions of former German Cameroon were mandated to Britain by the League of Nations and were administered as part of Nigeria. Most of the fighting was done by Hausa soldiers, recruited to fight against other groups. The Lander brothers were seized by slave traders in the interior and sold down the river to a waiting European ship. The nationalism that became a political factor in Nigeria during the interwar period derived both from an older political particularism and broad pan-Africanism, rather than from any sense among the people of a common Nigerian nationality. In the name of liberating the Igbos from the Aro Confederacy, the British launched the Anglo-Aro War of 19011902. [27] To produce all this oil, the economy of the southern region crossed over from mostly subsistence to the production of palm oil as a cash crop.[28]. [79][80], Much of the colony's budget went to payments of its military, the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF). They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.[26]. They took the right to rule over it, to levy taxes, to depose kings and to create kings. ", Tamuno, T. N. (1970). European colonialists had managed to quell the efforts by Africans to resist the establishment of colonial rule with one exception. Other Protestant denominations from Great Britain, Canada, and the United States also opened missions and, in the 1860s, Roman Catholic religious orders established missions. [32], In 1880, the British Government and traders demonetised the Maria Theresa dollar, to the considerable dismay of its local holders, in favour of the pound sterling. You are right my brother. It soon gained a virtual monopoly over trade along the River[11]. To establish settled government in the newly won districts; To improve and extend native footpaths throughout the country; To construct properly graded roads in the more populated districts; To clear the numerous rivers in the country and make them suitable for launch and canoe traffic; and. After the defection of Kano, the only significant disagreement within the NPC was related to moderates. The Kikuyu people of Kenya, like most Africans, were laborers with the women doing most work at home while the men found work across the country. Following Lugards success in the north, he set out the principles of the administrative system subsequently institutionalized as indirect rule. Essentially, local government was to be left in the hands of the traditional chiefs, subject to the guidance of European officers. The early resistance to colonialism in Africa began in the late 19th century with the increasing unrest in East Africa and several organized groups. [81] In 1936, of 6,259,547 income for the Nigerian state, 1,156,000 went back to England as home pay for British officials in the Nigerian civil service. [43][44] The British forces began annual pacification missions to convince the locals of British supremacy. The best way to describe what has happened to Nigeria in the last 72 hours, beginning with the country's first set of general elections on Saturday, February 25, 2023, is to echo Charles Dickens . A chief of Bonny in 1860 explained that he refused a British treaty due to the tendency to "induce the Chiefs to sign a treaty whose meaning they did not understand, and then seize upon the country".[14]. Algeria fought back and eventually was granted self rule and nigeria was put down and never got independance. Despite the acceptance of European and North American influences, the nationalists were critical of colonialism for its failure to appreciate the antiquity, richness and complexity of indigenous cultures. Combining the three jurisdictions would reduce administrative expenses and facilitate deployment of resources and money between the areas. Some African Christian communities formed their own independent churches. European interpretations of Christian orthodoxy in some cases refused to allow the incorporation of local customs and practices, although the various mission denominations interpreted Christianity in different ways. The seven men who governed Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria and Lagos through 1914 were Henry McCallum, William MacGregor, Walter Egerton, Ralph Moor, Percy Girouard, Hesketh Bell and Frederick Lugard. During his six-year tenure as High Commissioner, Sir Frederick Lugard (as he became in 1901) was occupied with transforming the commercial sphere of influence inherited from the Royal Niger Company into a viable territorial unit under effective British political control. Newspapers, some of which were published before World War I, provided coverage of nationalist views. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. British colonialism created Nigeria, but did little to make it a viable, stable, self-sustaining national entity. Britain annexed Lagos in 1861 and established the Oil River Protectorate in 1884. Examples of passive resistance include complex and/or costly application processes, a failure to provide guidance on how to request information, or enforcement mechanisms that are difficult to use. [32] This included a river fleet which it used for retaliatory attacks on uncooperative villages. In the Bight of Biafra, the major ports were Old Calabar (Akwa Akpa), Bonny and New Calabar. By the eighteenth century, evidence of Christianity had disappeared. [22] Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat. Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. There was virtually no pressure for greater unity among the regions until after the end of World War II. In May of this year, Herbert J. A third type of organisation that was more pointedly political was the youth or student group, which became the vehicle of intellectuals and professionals. On a subsequent expedition to the Sokoto Caliphate, Scottish explorer Hugh Clapperton learned about the mouth of the Niger River, and where it reached the sea, but after suffering malaria, depression and dysentery, he died before confirming it. resistance to British invasion and colonial rule so as to close that vacuum created by the 'majority syndrome' approach. The most important of these was a near fetish with indirect rule that was supposed to facilitate a cheap and effective ruling strategy. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. It, therefore, hired native intermediaries who could conduct diplomacy, trade and intelligence work in the local area. This line was extended to Oshogbo, 100 kilometres (62mi) away, in 19051907, and to Zungeru and Minna in 19081911. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. Some of the treaties contained prohibitions on diplomacy conducted without British permission, or other promises to abide by British rule. The legal justification for this campaign was a treaty signed in 1886, when the British had interceded as peacemakers to end the Ekiti Parapo war, which imposed free trade requirements and mandated that all parties continue to use British channels for diplomacy. The political parties jockeyed for positions of power in anticipation of the independence of Nigeria. Lugard's campaign systematically subdued local resistance, using armed force when diplomatic measures failed. This led to protests known as Women's War. ", Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria. Locally this involved the immediate invasion of the German-held Kamerun (Cameroon) by Nigerian forces, followed by a costly campaign that lasted until 1916. British staffs in each region continued to operate according to procedures developed before unification. The forces unleashed against the British were now diverse, including soldiers who had served in World War II, the media, restless youth, market women, educated people, and farmers, all of whom became committed to the anticolonial movement. In the Eastern Region, appointed officials who were given "warrants" and hence called warrant chiefs, were strongly resisted by the people because they lacked traditional claims. However, decolonization also brought regionalization and a hardening of ethnic identities. In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. The British captured Kano in 1903. To prevent any united opposition to its authority, the British adopted a divide-and-rule policy, keeping Nigerian groups separate from one another as much as possible. In: Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs: (1999), vol. The council was promoted as a device for allowing the expression of opinions that could instruct the Governor-General. The Action Group consistently supported minority-group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. They wanted self-government, charging that only colonial rule prevented the unshackling of progressive forces in Nigeria and other states. The election of the House of Representatives after the adoption of the 1954 constitution gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. [23] Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.[21][24]. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from Dahomey and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the emirate of Ilorin, the British Governorassisted by the CMSsucceeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior. Frederick Lugard, who assumed the position of high commissioner of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria in 1900, often has been regarded as the model British colonial administrator. While initially organised for professional and fraternal reasons, these were centres of educated people who had chances to develop their leadership skills in the organisations, as well as form broad social networks. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in December 1959; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. The operations of this force are still not fully known due to a policy of strict secrecy mandated by the British Government. Political opposition to colonial rule often assumed religious dimensions. David Richardson, "Background to annexation: Anglo-African credit relations in the Bight of Biafra, 17001891"; in Ptr-Grenouilleau. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the Bight of Biafra. The proliferation of labour organisations fragmented the movement, and potential leaders lacked the experience and skill to draw workers together. Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.[68]. Years of colonial rule yieleded system w/ all-powerful central government surrounded by weak and economically insolvent states. Nigeria's first nationalist movements appeared in the 1920s, and resistance to colonial rule grew over the next three decades. A "house" included the extended family of the trader, including retainers and slaves. As a philosophical movement and critical . Throughout this period of reign, many changes were made to their . The superior weapons, tactics and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory. Divide and rule policy: This was mainly applied in areas where African societies or population had poor relations as a result of differences between their leaders or divisions created by Christian religious sects to easily defeat Africans in case of impending resistance against colonial rule. European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the cowrie, which was already valued locally. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. The NPC platform emphasized the integrity of the north, its traditions, religion and social order. In 1894 the territory was redesignated the Niger Coast Protectorate and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as Lokoja, the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. [74] The disease first found its home among the many trading ports along the West African coast. [53] The first five heads of the Nigeria Department (18981914) were Reginald Antrobus, William Mercer, William Baillie Hamilton, Sydney Olivier, and Charles Strachey. Each was under a Lieutenant Governor and provided independent government services. European slave trading from West Africa began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. [] These intermediaries assisted government diplomacy and helped to establish and maintain relations between the company and the traditional rulers. Frederick Lugard, who was appointed as High Commissioner of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate in 1900 and served until 1906 in his first term, often has been regarded by the British as their model colonial administrator. The trade subsequently continued under the Portuguese Empire. refusing to pay. [61], The task of unification was achieved on the eve of World War I. In 1929, this incident in Nigeria later became one of the reasons for the fight against colonial rule in Africa A) The Nigerian Oil crisis B) The Aba Women's Revolt C) . Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. Before 1898, the scramble for Africa by European countries led to the partition of Africa after the Berlin conference of 1884-85. In 1907, the corporation received a loan of 25,000, repayable upon discovery of oil. Macaulay was despised by the British, but he came to be regarded as the father of modern Nigerian nationalism.. At the urging of Governor Frederick Lugard, the two territories were amalgamated as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria, while maintaining considerable regional autonomy among the three major regions (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate and the Colony of Lagos). . The influx of cowrie led to inflation. [72] In the south, he saw the possibility of building an elite educated in schools modelled on a European method (and numerous elite children attended high-ranking colleges in Britain during the colonial years). The goal of activists initially was not self-determination, but increased participation on a regional level in the governmental process. Under the Political Department of the Civil Service were Residents and District Officers, responsible for overseeing operations in each region. Then they resisted the policy as much as possible. In 1805, he set out on a second expedition, sponsored by the British Government, to follow the Niger to the sea. [12] Trade was also conducted through a mechanism of barter and credit. Similar status was acquired by the Northern Region two years later. It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. Independent Christian churches had emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. American president Dwight D. Eisenhower was represented at the independence ceremonies by Nelson Rockefeller, the . Nigeria: A Country Study. The National Youth Movement used nationalist rhetoric to agitate for improvements in education. Inteno Fiberkonverter Blinkar, Herkules Flygplan Fakta, Kraftvrme Frdelar Och Nackdelar, Infllt Mtarskp Utomhus . Nigeria (/ n a d r i / ny-JEER-ee-), officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa.It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf of Guinea to the south in the Atlantic Ocean.It covers an area of 923,769 square kilometres (356,669 sq mi), and with a population of over 225 million, it is the most populous country in Africa, and the world's . In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulersincluding the Sultan of Sokoto, the Emir of Kano and the Oba of Beninto represent all parts of the colony. Updated: 11/12/2021 Create an account [73] The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including, travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households. [25][n 1], The missionaries gained in power throughout the 1800s. British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul John Beecroft to encourage the overthrow of the regime. 57-100 discuss issues of resistance and collaboration. Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. The Headquarters of Gombe emirate was Gombe-Abba[15] until when the then Emir of Gombe, Umaru Kwairanga (18981922), was forced to move from Gombe-Abba, a town founded by his grandfather and the founder of Gombe Emirate, Modibbo Bubayero, to Nafada town in 1913, and then to the current Gombe in 1919, that was after Gombe Emirate was conquered by British colonialists in 1903. In April 1927, the British colonial government in Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. [73] In direct reaction to the epidemic, colonial authorities allowed African doctors and medical personnel to work with influenza patients due to the severity of the situation. In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional rulers of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council's meetings except to listen and to assent. Early on in colonial rule, for example, Nigerians protested the manner in which water rates and head taxes were collected. Initially, most palm oil (and later kernels) came from Igboland, where palm trees formed a canopy over the densely inhabited areas of the Ngwa, Nri Kingdom, Awka and other Igbo peoples. Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes. 2, p. 211-221. . 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